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Middle class

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the band, see <a href="Middle_Class_(band)" title="Middle Class (band)">Middle Class (band)</a>.</div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="Working_class" title="Working class">Working class</a>.</div>

The middle class refers to a <a href="Social_class" title="Social class">class</a> of people in the middle of a <a href="Social_hierarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Social hierarchy">social hierarchy</a>, often defined by <a href="Job" class="mw-redirect" title="Job">occupation</a>, income, education, or <a href="Social_status" title="Social status">social status</a>. The term has historically been associated with modernity,<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> <a href="Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a> and political debate.<a href="#cite_note-:1-2">[2]</a> Common definitions for the middle class range from the middle fifth of individuals on a nation's income ladder, to everyone but the poorest and wealthiest 20%.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Theories like "Paradox of Interest" use <a href="Decile" title="Decile">decile</a> groups and <a href="Wealth_distribution" class="mw-redirect" title="Wealth distribution">wealth distribution</a> data to determine the size and wealth share of the middle class.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a>

<a href="Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">Terminology differs in the United States</a>, where the term middle class describes people who in other countries would be described as <a href="Working_class" title="Working class">working class</a>.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> There has been significant global middle-class growth over time. In February 2009, <a href="The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a> asserted that over half of the world's population belonged to the middle class, as a result of rapid growth in emerging countries. It characterized the middle class as having a reasonable amount of <a href="Disposable_and_discretionary_income" class="mw-redirect" title="Disposable and discretionary income">discretionary income</a> and defined it as beginning at the point where people have roughly a third of their income left for discretionary spending after paying for basic food and shelter.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_and_evolution_of_the_term">History and evolution of the term</h2></div>

The term "middle class" is first attested in James Bradshaw's 1745 pamphlet Scheme to prevent running Irish Wools to France.<a href="#cite_note-:0-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bradshaw1745-8">[8]</a> Another phrase used in <a href="Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">early modern Europe</a> was "the middling sort".<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a>

The term "middle class" has had several and sometimes contradictory meanings.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> <a href="Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a> saw the category as an intermediate <a href="Social_class" title="Social class">social class</a> between the <a href="Nobility" title="Nobility">nobility</a> and the <a href="Peasantry" class="mw-redirect" title="Peasantry">peasantry</a> in late-feudalist society.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> While the nobility owned much of the countryside, and the peasantry worked it, a new <a href="Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeoisie</a> (literally "town-dwellers") arose around mercantile functions in the city. In <a href="France" title="France">France</a>, the middle classes helped drive the <a href="French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> This "middle class" eventually overthrew the ruling monarchists of feudal society, thus becoming the new ruling class or bourgeoisie in the new capitalist-dominated societies.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a>

The modern usage of the term "middle-class", however, dates to the 1913 UK Registrar-General's report, in which the statistician <a href="T._H._C._Stevenson" title="T. H. C. Stevenson">T. H. C. Stevenson</a> identified the middle class as those falling between the <a href="Upper-class" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper-class">upper-class</a> and the <a href="Working-class" class="mw-redirect" title="Working-class">working-class</a>.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> The middle class includes: professionals, managers, and senior civil servants. The chief defining characteristic of membership in the middle-class is control of significant <a href="Human_capital" title="Human capital">human capital</a> while still being under the dominion of the elite upper class, who control much of the financial and legal capital in the world.

Within capitalism, "middle-class" initially referred to the bourgeoisie; later, with the further differentiation of classes as capitalist societies developed, the term came to be synonymous with the term <a href="Petite_bourgeoisie" title="Petite bourgeoisie">petite bourgeoisie</a>. The boom-and-bust cycles of capitalist economies result in the periodic (and more or less temporary) <a href="Poverty" title="Poverty">impoverishment</a> and <a href="Proletarianisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Proletarianisation">proletarianization</a> of much of the petite bourgeois world, resulting in their moving back and forth between working-class and petite-bourgeois status. The typical modern definitions of "middle class" tend to ignore the fact that the classical petite-bourgeoisie is and has always been the owner of a small-to medium-sized business whose income is derived almost exclusively from the employment of workers; "middle class" came to refer to the combination of the <a href="Labour_aristocracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Labour aristocracy">labour aristocracy</a>, <a href="Professionals" class="mw-redirect" title="Professionals">professionals</a>, and salaried, <a href="White-collar_worker" title="White-collar worker">white-collar workers</a>. A broad middle class can act as a counterweight against oligarchy.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a>

The size of the middle class depends on how it is defined, whether by education, <a href="Wealth" title="Wealth">wealth</a>, environment of upbringing, <a href="Social_network" title="Social network">social network</a>, <a href="Etiquette" title="Etiquette">manners</a> or values, etc. These are all related, but are far from deterministically dependent. The following factors are often ascribed in the literature on this topic to a "middle class:"

<ul><li>Achievement of <a href="Tertiary_education" title="Tertiary education">tertiary education</a>.</li>

<li>Holding professional qualifications, including <a href="Academic" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic">academics</a>, <a href="Lawyers" class="mw-redirect" title="Lawyers">lawyers</a>, <a href="Chartered_engineer" class="mw-redirect" title="Chartered engineer">chartered engineers</a>, <a href="Politicians" class="mw-redirect" title="Politicians">politicians</a>, and <a href="Physicians" class="mw-redirect" title="Physicians">doctors</a>, regardless of leisure or wealth.</li>

<li>Belief in <a href="Bourgeois" class="mw-redirect" title="Bourgeois">bourgeois</a> values, such as high rates of <a href="Owner-occupier" class="mw-redirect" title="Owner-occupier">house ownership</a>, <a href="Delayed_gratification" title="Delayed gratification">delayed gratification</a>, and jobs that are perceived to be <a href="Job_security" title="Job security">secure</a>.</li>

<li>Lifestyle. In the United Kingdom, social status has historically been linked less directly to wealth than in the United States,<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> and has also been judged by such characteristics as <a href="Accent_(dialect)" class="mw-redirect" title="Accent (dialect)">accent</a> (<a href="Received_Pronunciation" title="Received Pronunciation">Received Pronunciation</a> and <a href="U_and_non-U_English" title="U and non-U English">U and non-U English</a>), manners, type of school attended (state or private school), occupation, and the class of a person's family, circle of friends and acquaintances.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></li></ul>

In the United States, by the end of the twentieth century, more people identified themselves as middle-class (with insignificant numbers identifying themselves as upper-class).<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> The <a href="Labour_Party_(UK)" title="Labour Party (UK)">Labour Party</a> in the UK, which grew out of the organised <a href="Labour_movement" title="Labour movement">labour movement</a> and originally drew almost all of its support from the working-class, reinvented itself under <a href="Tony_Blair" title="Tony Blair">Tony Blair</a> in the 1990s as <a href="New_Labour#New_Labour" title="New Labour">"New Labour"</a>, a party competing with the <a href="Conservative_Party_(UK)" title="Conservative Party (UK)">Conservative Party</a> for the votes of the middle-class as well as those of the Labour Party's traditional group of voters – the working-class. Around 40% of British people consider themselves to be middle class, and this number has remained relatively stable over the last few decades.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a>

According to the <a href="OECD" title="OECD">OECD</a>, the middle class refers to households with income between 75% and 200% of the median national income.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Marxism">Marxism</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> and <a href="Marxian_class_theory" title="Marxian class theory">Marxian class theory</a></div>

<a href="Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> defines social classes according to their relationship with the <a href="Means_of_production" title="Means of production">means of production</a>. The main basis of social class division of Marxism: the possession of means of production, the role and position it plays in social labor organization (production process), the distribution of wealth and resources and the amount. Marxist writers have used the term middle class in various ways.<a href="#cite_note-clb-24">[24]</a> In the first sense, it is used for the bourgeoisie (the urban merchant and professional class) that arose between the <a href="Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">aristocracy</a> and the proletariat in the waning years of feudalism in the Marxist model. <a href="Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a> stated that the "peasantry ... in Russia constitute eight- or nine-tenths of the petty bourgeoisie".<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> However, in modern developed countries, Marxist writers define the petite bourgeoisie as primarily comprising (as the name implies) owners of small to medium-sized businesses, who derive their income from the exploitation of wage-laborers (and who are in turn exploited by the "big" bourgeoisie i.e. bankers, owners of large corporate trusts, etc.) as well as the highly educated professional class of doctors, engineers, architects, lawyers, university professors, salaried middle-management of capitalist enterprises of all sizes, etc. – as the "middle class" which stands between the ruling capitalist "owners of the means of production" and the working class (whose income is derived solely from hourly wages).

<a href="Louis_C._Fraina" title="Louis C. Fraina">Louis C. Fraina</a> (Lewis Corey), a pioneer 20th-century American <a href="Marxist_theoretician" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist theoretician">Marxist theoretician</a>, defined the middle class as "the class of independent small enterprisers, owners of productive property from which a livelihood is derived".<a href="#cite_note-Fraina141-27">[27]</a> From Fraina's perspective, this social category included "propertied farmers" but not propertyless <a href="Tenant_farmer" title="Tenant farmer">tenant farmers</a>. Middle class also included salaried managerial and supervisory employees but not "the masses of propertyless, dependent salaried employees.<a href="#cite_note-Fraina141-27">[27]</a> Fraina speculated that the entire category of salaried employees might be adequately described as a "new middle class" in economic terms, although this remained a social grouping in which "most of whose members are a new proletariat."<a href="#cite_note-Fraina141-27">[27]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Professional–managerial_class">Professional–managerial class</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Professional%E2%80%93managerial_class" title="Professional–managerial class">Professional–managerial class</a></div>

In 1977, <a href="Barbara_Ehrenreich" title="Barbara Ehrenreich">Barbara Ehrenreich</a> and <a href="John_Ehrenreich" title="John Ehrenreich">John Ehrenreich</a> defined a new class in the United States as "salaried mental workers who do not own the means of production and whose major function in the social division of labor ... [is] ... the reproduction of capitalist culture and capitalist class relations;" the Ehrenreichs named this group the "professional–managerial class".<a href="#cite_note-Ehrenreich-28">[28]</a> This group of middle-class <a href="Professional" title="Professional">professionals</a> is distinguished from other social classes by their training and education (typically business qualifications and university degrees),<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> with example occupations including academics and <a href="Teachers" class="mw-redirect" title="Teachers">teachers</a>, <a href="Social_workers" class="mw-redirect" title="Social workers">social workers</a>, <a href="Engineer" title="Engineer">engineers</a>, <a href="Accountants" class="mw-redirect" title="Accountants">accountants</a>, <a href="Managers" class="mw-redirect" title="Managers">managers</a>, <a href="Nurses" class="mw-redirect" title="Nurses">nurses</a>, and middle-level administrators.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> The Ehrenreichs developed their definition from studies by <a href="Andr%C3%A9_Gorz" title="André Gorz">André Gorz</a>, Serge Mallet, and others, of a "new working class," which, despite education and a perception of themselves as middle class, were part of the working class because they did not own the means of production, and were wage earners paid to produce a piece of capital.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> The professional–managerial class seek higher rank status and salaries<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> and tend to have incomes above the average for their country.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Recent_global_growth">Recent global growth</h2></div>

Modern definitions of the term "middle class" are often politically motivated and vary according to the exigencies of political purpose which they were conceived to serve in the first place as well as due to the multiplicity of more- or less-scientific methods used to measure and compare wealth between modern advanced industrial states, where poverty is relatively low and the distribution of wealth more egalitarian in a relative sense, and in developing countries, where poverty and a profoundly unequal distribution of wealth crush the vast majority of the population. Many of these methods of comparison have been harshly criticised; for example, economist <a href="Thomas_Piketty" title="Thomas Piketty">Thomas Piketty</a>, in his book <a href="Capital_in_the_Twenty-First_Century" title="Capital in the Twenty-First Century">Capital in the Twenty-First Century</a>, describes one of the most commonly used comparative measures of wealth across the globe, the <a href="Gini_coefficient" title="Gini coefficient">Gini coefficient</a>, as being an example of "synthetic indices ... which mix very different things, such as inequality with respect to labor and capital, so that it is impossible to distinguish clearly among the multiple dimensions of inequality and the various mechanisms at work."<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a>

In February 2009, <a href="The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a> asserted that over half the world's population now belongs to the middle class, as a result of rapid growth in emerging countries. It characterized the middle class as having a reasonable amount of <a href="Disposable_and_discretionary_income" class="mw-redirect" title="Disposable and discretionary income">discretionary income</a>, so that they do not live from hand-to-mouth as the poor do, and defined it as beginning at the point where people have roughly a third of their income left for discretionary spending after paying for basic food and shelter. This allows people to buy consumer goods, improve their health care, and provide for their children's education. Most of the emerging middle class consists of people who are middle class by the standards of the developing world but not the developed one, since their money incomes do not match developed country levels, but the percentage of it which is discretionary does. By this definition, the number of middle-class people in Asia exceeded that in the West sometime around 2007 or 2008.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a>

The Economist's article pointed out that in many emerging countries, the middle class has not grown incrementally but explosively. The point at which the poor start entering the middle class by the millions is alleged to be the time when poor countries get the maximum benefit from cheap labour through <a href="International_trade" title="International trade">international trade</a>, before they price themselves out of world markets for cheap goods. It is also a period of rapid urbanization, when <a href="Subsistence_farmers" class="mw-redirect" title="Subsistence farmers">subsistence farmers</a> abandon marginal farms to work in factories, resulting in a several-fold increase in their economic <a href="Productivity" title="Productivity">productivity</a> before their wages catch up to international levels. That stage was reached in China sometime between 1990 and 2005, when the Chinese "middle class" grew from 15% to 62% of the population and is just being reached in India now.

The Economist predicted that surge across the poverty line should continue for a couple of decades and the global middle class will grow exponentially between now and 2030. Based on the rapid growth, scholars expect the global middle class to be the driving force for sustainable development. This assumption, however, is contested (see below).<a href="#cite_note-The_middle-class_hype-36">[36]</a>

As the American middle class is estimated by some researchers to comprise approximately 45% of the population,<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> The Economist's article would put the size of the American middle class below the world average. This difference is due to the extreme difference in definitions between The Economist's and many <a href="American_middle_class#Academic_models" title="American middle class">other models</a>.

In 2010, a working paper by the <a href="OECD" title="OECD">OECD</a> asserted that 1.8 billion people were now members of the global "middle class".<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Credit Suisse's Global Wealth Report 2014, released in October 2014, estimated that one billion adults belonged to the "middle class," with wealth anywhere between the range of $10,000–$100,000.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a>

According to a study carried out by the <a href="Pew_Research_Center" title="Pew Research Center">Pew Research Center</a>, a combined 16% of the world's population in 2011 were "upper-middle income" and "upper income".<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a>

An April 2019 OECD report said that the millennial generation is being pushed out of the middle class throughout the Western world.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="China">China</h3></div>

Since the beginning of the 21st century, <a href="China" title="China">China</a>'s middle class has grown by significant margins. According to the <a href="Center_for_Strategic_and_International_Studies" title="Center for Strategic and International Studies">Center for Strategic and International Studies</a>, by 2013, some 420 million people, or 31%, of the Chinese population qualified as middle class.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> Based on the World Bank definition of middle class as those having with daily spending between $10 and $50 per day, nearly 40% of the Chinese population were considered middle class as of 2017.<a href="#cite_note-chinamiddle-45">[45]</a>

China's middle class represents a significant market force with effects extending beyond its borders. The promise of increased prosperity and a consumer society has been a driving force behind this growth, while also suggesting the potential for political changes similar to those seen in Europe and North America. However, it's important to note that the Chinese middle class differs substantially from its Western counterparts. Despite its growth, it remains a relatively small group profoundly joined with the Chinese state. This unique relationship challenges assumptions about its role in political change. Criticisms from this demographic often center on improving efficiency and social justice within the existing political framework, rather than advocating for a regime change.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Germany">Germany</h3></div>

In 2017, <a href="Andreas_Reckwitz" title="Andreas Reckwitz">Andreas Reckwitz</a> described two middle classes in Germany: the new middle class and the old middle class. The new middle class consists primarily of "highly qualified academics in large cities with good career prospects, especially in the knowledge economy". Although this new middle class has a high ecological footprint, for example due to frequent air travel, it nevertheless considers ecologically responsible behavior to be important. The old middle class are "people with a medium level of education, often in small-town rural regions, who tend to be <a href="Conservatism" title="Conservatism">conservative</a> and <a href="Tradition" title="Tradition">traditional</a> in their <a href="Attitude_(psychology)" title="Attitude (psychology)">attitudes</a> and <a href="Lifestyle" title="Lifestyle">lifestyles</a>."<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="India">India</h3></div>

Estimates vary widely on the number of middle-class people in <a href="India" title="India">India</a>. A 1983 article put the Indian middle class as somewhere between 70 and 100 million.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> According to one study the middle class in India stood at between 60 and 80 million by 1990.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> According to The Economist, 78 million of India's population are considered middle class as of 2017, if defined using the cutoff of those making more than $10 per day, a standard used by the India's National Council of Applied Economic Research.<a href="#cite_note-teindia-51">[51]</a> If including those with incomes between $2 and $10 per day, the number increases to 604 million. This was termed by researchers as the "new middle class".<a href="#cite_note-epw-52">[52]</a> Measures considered include geography, lifestyle, income, and education. The World Inequality Report in 2018 further concluded that elites (i.e. the top 10%) are accumulating wealth at a greater rate than the middle class, that rather than growing, India's middle class may be shrinking in size.<a href="#cite_note-teindia-51">[51]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Africa">Africa</h3></div>

According to a 2014 study by Standard Bank economist Simon Freemantle, a total of 15.3 million households in 11 surveyed nations of <a href="Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> are middle class: <a href="Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a>, <a href="Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>, <a href="Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a>, <a href="Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a>, <a href="Mozambique" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a>, <a href="Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>, <a href="South_Sudan" title="South Sudan">South Sudan</a>, <a href="Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>, <a href="Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a>, <a href="Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a>, and <a href="Zambia" title="Zambia">Zambia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> In <a href="South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>, a report conducted by the Institute for Race Relations in 2015<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> estimated that between 10% and 20% of South Africans are middle class, based on various criteria.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> An earlier study estimated that in 2008 21.3% of <a href="South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africans</a> were members of the middle class.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a>

A study by EIU Canback indicates 90% of Africans fall below an income of $10 a day. The proportion of Africans in the $10–$20 middle class (excluding South Africa), rose from 4.4% to only 6.2% between 2004 and 2014. Over the same period, the proportion of "<a href="Upper_middle_class" title="Upper middle class">upper middle class</a>" income ($20–$50 a day) went from 1.4% to 2.3%.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a>

According to a 2014 study by the German Development Institute, the middle class of <a href="Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a> rose from 14 million to 31 million people between 1990 and 2010.<a href="#cite_note-die-gdi.de-58">[58]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Latin_America">Latin America</h3></div>

Over the years estimates on the size of the <a href="Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin America</a>'s middle class have varied. A 1960 study stated that the middle strata in Latin America as a whole, exclusive of Indians, constituted just under 20% of the national society.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> A 1964 study estimated that 45 million Latin Americans belonged to the urban middle class while 15 million to the urban well-to-do and 8 million to the rural middle class and well-to-do.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> In <a href="Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>, according to one estimate, in 1970 the <a href="Lower_middle_class" title="Lower middle class">lower middle class</a> comprised 12% of the population, while the upper middle class comprised 3%.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> In the mid-1970s it was estimated by one authority that the Brazilian middle class comprised between 15 and 25% of the population.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> A 1969 economic survey estimated that 15% of Brazilians belonged to the middle class.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> By 1970, according to one study, the middle class of <a href="Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a> comprised 38% of the economically active population, compared with 19% in Brazil and 24% in <a href="Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> A 1975 study on Mexico estimated that the middle class in 1968 (defined as families earning between 2,000 and 5,000 pesos annually) comprised 36.4% of the population, while the upper class (defined as families earning over 5,000 pesos annually) comprised 9.4% of the population and the lower class (defined as families earning less than 2,000 pesos annually) comprised 53.9% of the population.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a>

According to a study by the <a href="World_Bank" class="mw-redirect" title="World Bank">World Bank</a>, the number of Latin Americans who are middle class rose from 103 million to 152 million between 2003 and 2009.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russia">Russia</h3></div>

Due to <a href="Sustainable_growth" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable growth">sustainable growth</a>, the pre-crisis<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> level was exceeded.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> In 2015, research from the Russian Academy of Sciences estimated that around 15% of the Russian population are "firmly middle class", while around another 25% are "on the periphery".<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a>

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<ul><li><a href="African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">African-American middle class</a> – Social class in the United States</li>

<li><a href="British_class_system" class="mw-redirect" title="British class system">British class system</a> – Social structure of British societyPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li>

<li><a href="Classlessness" class="mw-redirect" title="Classlessness">Classlessness</a> – Society in which no one is born into a social classPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li>

<li><a href="Cultural_determinism" title="Cultural determinism">Cultural determinism</a> – Concept in social science</li>

<li><a href="The_Lonely_Crowd" title="The Lonely Crowd">The Lonely Crowd</a> – 1950 book by David Riesman</li>

<li><a href="Lower_middle_class" title="Lower middle class">Lower middle class</a> – Social class which is a sub-division of the greater middle class</li>

<li><a href="Lower_social_class" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower social class">Lower class</a> – Hierarchical stratification of societiesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li>

<li><a href="Middle-class_squeeze" title="Middle-class squeeze">Middle-class squeeze</a> – Decline in middle-class real wages and increase in economic inequality</li>

<li><a href="Occupational_prestige" title="Occupational prestige">Occupational prestige</a> – Public perception of an individual's job</li>

<li><a href="One-third_hypothesis" title="One-third hypothesis">One-third hypothesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Petite_bourgeoisie" title="Petite bourgeoisie">Petite bourgeoisie</a></li>

<li><a href="Status_paradox#Status_paradox_of_migration" title="Status paradox">Status paradox#Status paradox of migration</a></li>

<li><a href="Upper_middle_class" title="Upper middle class">Upper middle class</a> – Social class</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-Bradshaw1745-8"><a href="#cite_ref-Bradshaw1745_8-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFJames_Bradshaw1745" class="citation book cs1">James Bradshaw (1745). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AJdbAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA4">scheme to prevent the running of Irish wools to France: and Irish woollen goods to foreign countries. By prohibiting the importation of Spanish wools into Ireland ... Humbly offered to the consideration of Parliament. By a Merchant of London</a>. printed for J. Smith, and G. Faulkner. pp. 4–5. Retrieved 18 May 2012.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHunt1996" class="citation book cs1">Hunt, Margaret R. (1996). The Middling Sort : Commerce, Gender, and the Family in England, 1680–1780. University California Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-520-20260-0</bdi>. <q>To be one of "the middling sort" in urban England in the late seventeenth or eighteenth century was to live a life tied, one way or another, to the world of commerce.</q></cite>

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<li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <a href="Georges_Lefebvre" title="Georges Lefebvre">Georges Lefebvre</a>, La Révolution Française, 1951 1957

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<li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMarxEngels1848" class="citation book cs1">Marx, Karl; Engels, Friedrich (1848). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/communist-manifesto/index.htm">Manifesto of the Communist Party</a>. Marxists Internet Archive: Marxists Internet Archive. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090902090238/http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/communist-manifesto/index.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2009-09-02. Retrieved 2018-06-09.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFLenin1917" class="citation web cs1">Lenin, V.I. (9–10 October 1917). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1917/oct/09.htm">"The Tasks of the Revolution"</a>. Marxists Internet Archive. Rabochy Put. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180715175529/https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1917/oct/09.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 15 July 2018. Retrieved 8 June 2018. <q>Russia is a country of the petty bourgeoisie, by far the greater part of the population belonging to this class.</q></cite>

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</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li>Balzer, Harley D., ed. Russia's Missing Middle Class: The Professions in Russian History (M.E. Sharpe, 1996).</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBanerjee,_Abhijit_V._and_Esther_Duflo2007" class="citation book cs1">Banerjee, Abhijit V. and Esther Duflo (December 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090525093400/http://econ-www.mit.edu/files/3107">What is middle class about the middle classes around the world?</a>. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Economics. p. 50. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://econ-www.mit.edu/files/3107">the original</a> (PDF) on 25 May 2009. Retrieved 9 May 2009.</cite></li>

<li>Blackbourn, David, and Richard J. Evans, eds. The German Bourgeoisie: Essays on the Social History of the German Middle Class from the Late Eighteenth to the Early Twentieth Century (1991).</li>

<li>Cashell, Brian W. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071030122805/http://opencrs.cdt.org/rpts/RS22627_20070320.pdf">Who Are the "Middle Class"?</a>, <a href="Congressional_Research_Service" title="Congressional Research Service">CRS</a> Report for the Congress, 20 March 2007</li>

<li>Dejung, Christof, David Motadel, and Jürgen Osterhammel, eds. The Global Bourgeoisie: The Rise of the Middle Classes in the Age of Empire (2019) scholarly essays covering major countries and region s in 19th century <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Global-Bourgeoisie-Middle-Classes-Empire/dp/0691177341/">excerpt</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220521155411/https://www.amazon.com/Global-Bourgeoisie-Middle-Classes-Empire/dp/0691177341">Archived</a> 2022-05-21 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doAdvancedSearch?q0=%22The+Global+Bourgeoisie%22&f0=ti&c1=AND&q1=&f1=all&c2=AND&q2=&f2=all&c3=AND&q3=&f3=all&c4=AND&q4=&f4=all&c5=AND&q5=&f5=all&c6=AND&q6=&f6=all&acc=off&bk=on&la=&sd=&ed=&pt=&isbn=&group=none">chapters online</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210310004042/https://www.jstor.org/action/doAdvancedSearch?q0=%22The+Global+Bourgeoisie%22&f0=ti&c1=AND&q1=&f1=all&c2=AND&q2=&f2=all&c3=AND&q3=&f3=all&c4=AND&q4=&f4=all&c5=AND&q5=&f5=all&c6=AND&q6=&f6=all&acc=off&bk=on&la=&sd=&ed=&pt=&isbn=&group=none">Archived</a> 2021-03-10 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>)</li>

<li>Jones, Larry Eugene. "'The Dying Middle': Weimar Germany and the Fragmentation of Bourgeois Politics." Central European History 5.1 (1972): 23–54.</li>

<li>Kocka, Jürgen. "The Middle Classes in Europe," Journal of Modern History 67#4 (1995): 783–806. doi.org/10.1086/245228. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2124755">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210310154049/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2124755">Archived</a> 2021-03-10 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>

<li>Kocka, Jürgen, and J. Allan Mitchell, eds. Bourgeois Society in 19th Century Europe (1992)</li>

<li>Lebovics, Herman. Social Conservatism and the Middle Class in Germany, 1914–1933 (Princeton UP, 2015).</li>

<li>López, A. Ricardo, and Barbara Weinstein, eds. The Making of the Middle Class: Toward a Transnational History (Duke University Press, 2012) 446 pp. scholarly essays</li>

<li>McKibbin, Ross. Classes and Cultures: England 1918–1951 (2000) pp 44–105.</li>

<li>Mills, C. Wright, White Collar: The American Middle Classes (1951).</li>

<li>Pilbeam, Pamela. The Middle Classes in Europe, 1789–1914: France, Germany, Italy, and Russia (1990)</li>

<li>Wells, Jonathan Daniel. "The Southern Middle Class," Journal of Southern History, Volume: 75#3 2009. pp 651+.</li>

<li>Williams, E. N. "Our Merchants Are Princes": The English Middle Classes In The Eighteenth Century". History Today (Aug 1962), Vol. 12 Issue 8, pp. 548–557.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFFryKochhar2016" class="citation web cs1">Fry, Richard; Kochhar, Rakesh (11 May 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/05/11/are-you-in-the-american-middle-class/">"Are you in the American middle class? Find out with our income calculator"</a>. Pew Research Center.</cite></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abc.net.au/pm/content/2006/s1636594.htm">Beazley reaches out to 'middle Australia'</a></li>

<li>NOW on PBS: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080205050318/http://www.pbs.org/now/shows/405/index.html">"Middle Class Insecurity"</a> Are politicians listening to middle-class families on the edge of economic collapse?</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pewglobal.org/files/2015/07/Global-Middle-Class-Report_FINAL_7-8-15.pdf">Contains estimates on the size of the middle class in various countries</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QEQrBQAAQBAJ&dq=latin+america+middle+class+size+2014&pg=PA84">Contains estimates on the size of the middle class in Latin America and other countries</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ecdpm.org/wp-content/uploads/DP167-Africas-Middle-Class-Plenty-Extreme-Poverty-October-2014.pdf">Contains Contains estimates on the size of the middle class in Africa, based on various definitions</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Imagine_There_s_No_Country/nJJ6SP9zejwC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=The+miracle+of+Asia+is+one+of+the+most+prominent+results&pg=PA187&printsec=frontcover">Includes details of the percentage of middle class persons in various parts of the world from 1960 to 2000</a></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Social_class321" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="Social_class" title="Social class">Social class</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><a href="Social_status" title="Social status">Status</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">Stratum</a></li>

<li><a href="Economic_classes" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic classes">Economic classes</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Gilbert_model" title="Gilbert model">Gilbert model</a></li>

<li><a href="Marxian_class_theory" title="Marxian class theory">Marxian</a></li>

<li><a href="Mudsill_theory" title="Mudsill theory">Mudsill theory</a></li>

<li><a href="New_class" title="New class">New class</a></li>

<li><a href="Spoon_class_theory" title="Spoon class theory">Spoon class theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Three-component_theory_of_stratification" title="Three-component theory of stratification">Weberian (three-component)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Caste" title="Caste">Caste</a></li>

<li><a href="Chattering_classes" title="Chattering classes">Chattering classes</a></li>

<li><a href="Class_conflict" class="mw-redirect" title="Class conflict">Class conflict</a></li>

<li><a href="Class_discrimination" title="Class discrimination">Class discrimination</a></li>

<li><a href="Class_society" class="mw-redirect" title="Class society">Class society</a></li>

<li><a href="Class_traitor" title="Class traitor">Class traitor</a></li>

<li><a href="Classicide" title="Classicide">Classicide</a></li>

<li><a href="Classless_society" title="Classless society">Classless society</a></li>

<li><a href="Euthenics" title="Euthenics">Euthenics</a></li>

<li><a href="High_society" title="High society">High society</a></li>

<li><a href="Nouveau_riche" title="Nouveau riche">Nouveau riche</a> / <a href="Parvenu" title="Parvenu">Parvenu</a></li>

<li><a href="Poverty" title="Poverty">Poverty</a></li>

<li><a href="Ranked_society" title="Ranked society">Ranked society</a></li>

<li><a href="Snob" title="Snob">Snobbery</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_cleansing" title="Social cleansing">Social cleansing</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_mobility" title="Social mobility">Social mobility</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_orphan" title="Social orphan">Social orphan</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_position" title="Social position">Social position</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">Social stigma</a></li>

<li><a href="Subaltern_(postcolonialism)" title="Subaltern (postcolonialism)">Subaltern</a></li>

<li><a href="Status_Anxiety" title="Status Anxiety">Status Anxiety</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_demographic321" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div title="demographic">By demographic</div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">By status</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Administrative_detention" title="Administrative detention">Administrative detainee</a></li>

<li><a href="Alien_(law)" title="Alien (law)">Alien</a>

<ul><li><a href="Illegal_immigration" title="Illegal immigration">illegal immigrant</a></li>

<li><a href="Refugee" title="Refugee">refugee</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizen</a>

<ul><li><a href="Multiple_citizenship" title="Multiple citizenship">dual or multiple</a></li>

<li><a href="Jus_soli" title="Jus soli">native-born</a></li>

<li><a href="Naturalization" title="Naturalization">naturalized</a></li>

<li><a href="Second-class_citizen" title="Second-class citizen">second-class</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Clique" title="Clique">Clique</a>

<ul><li><a href="Adolescent_clique" title="Adolescent clique">adolescent</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Loss_of_rights_due_to_conviction_for_criminal_offense" class="mw-redirect" title="Loss of rights due to conviction for criminal offense">Convicted</a></li>

<li><a href="Migrant_worker" title="Migrant worker">Migrant worker</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_prisoner" title="Political prisoner">Political prisoner</a></li>

<li><a href="Socioeconomic_status" title="Socioeconomic status">Socioeconomic</a></li>

<li><a href="Statelessness" title="Statelessness">Stateless</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">By "<a href="Designation_of_workers_by_collar_color" title="Designation of workers by collar color">collar</a>"</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Green-collar_worker" title="Green-collar worker">Green</a></li>

<li><a href="White-collar_worker" title="White-collar worker">White</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">By type</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">Ruling</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Aristocracy_(class)" title="Aristocracy (class)">Aristocracy</a>

<ul><li><a href="Aristoi" title="Aristoi">Aristoi</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Hanseaten_(class)" title="Hanseaten (class)">Hanseaten</a></li>

<li><a href="Magnate" title="Magnate">Magnate</a></li>

<li><a href="Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a>

<ul><li><a href="Russian_oligarch" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian oligarch">Russian</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Patrician

<ul><li><a href="Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">Ancient Rome</a></li>

<li><a href="Patrician_(post-Roman_Europe)" title="Patrician (post-Roman Europe)">Post-Roman</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Political_class" title="Political class">Political</a>

<ul><li><a href="Political_family" title="Political family">Family</a>

<li><a href="Hereditary_politicians" title="Hereditary politicians">Hereditary</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Royal_family" title="Royal family">Royal family</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Intellectual" title="Intellectual">Intellectual</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Clergy" title="Clergy">Clergy</a>

<ul><li><a href="Priest" title="Priest">Priest</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_worker" title="Knowledge worker">Knowledge worker</a></li>

<li><a href="Professor" title="Professor">Professor</a></li>

<li><a href="Scholar" title="Scholar">Scholar</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Warrior" title="Warrior">Warrior</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Chhetri" title="Chhetri">Chhetri</a></li>

<li><a href="Cossacks" title="Cossacks">Cossacks</a></li>

<li><a href="Eagle_warrior" title="Eagle warrior">Cuāuh</a></li>

<li><a href="Harii" title="Harii">Harii</a></li>

<li><a href="Order_of_Assassins" title="Order of Assassins">Hashashin</a></li>

<li><a href="Knight" title="Knight">Knight</a></li>

<li><a href="Kshatriya" title="Kshatriya">Kshatriya</a></li>

<li><a href="Jaguar_warrior" title="Jaguar warrior">Ocēlōtl</a></li>

<li><a href="Pendekar" title="Pendekar">Pendekar</a></li>

<li><a href="Samurai" title="Samurai">Samurai</a></li>

<li><a href="Spartiate" title="Spartiate">Spartiate</a></li>

<li><a href="Vanniyar" title="Vanniyar">Vanniyar</a>/<a href="Vanniar_(Chieftain)" title="Vanniar (Chieftain)">Vanniar (Chieftain)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Upper_class" title="Upper class">Upper</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Business_magnate" title="Business magnate">Business magnate</a></li>

<li><a href="Elite" title="Elite">Elite</a></li>

<li><a href="Gabellotto" title="Gabellotto">Gabellotto</a></li>

<li><a href="Gentry" title="Gentry">Gentry</a></li>

<li><a href="Nobility" title="Nobility">Nobility</a>

<ul><li><a href="Landed_nobility" title="Landed nobility">Landed</a></li>

<li><a href="Petty_nobility" title="Petty nobility">Petty</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Old_money" title="Old money">Old money</a></li>

<li><a href="Overclass" title="Overclass">Overclass</a></li>

<li><a href="Robber_baron_(industrialist)" title="Robber baron (industrialist)">Robber baron</a></li>

<li><a href="Seigneur" title="Seigneur">Seigneur</a></li>

<li><a href="Superclass_(book)" title="Superclass (book)">Superclass</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Creative_class" title="Creative class">Creative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bohemianism" title="Bohemianism">Bohemians</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">Bourgeoisie</a>

<ul><li><a href="Petite_bourgeoisie" title="Petite bourgeoisie">Petite</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Burgher_(social_class)" title="Burgher (social class)">Burgher</a></li>

<li><a href="Lower_middle_class" title="Lower middle class">Lower middle class</a></li>

<li><a href="Upper_middle_class" title="Upper middle class">Upper middle class</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Working_class" title="Working class">Working</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Commoner" title="Commoner">Commoner</a></li>

<li><a href="Lazzaroni_(Naples)" title="Lazzaroni (Naples)">Lazzaroni</a></li>

<li><a href="Lumpenproletariat" title="Lumpenproletariat">Lumpenproletariat</a></li>

<li><a href="Pea-pickers" title="Pea-pickers">Pea-pickers</a></li>

<li><a href="Peasant" title="Peasant">Peasant</a></li>

<li><a href="Precariat" title="Precariat">Precariat</a></li>

<li><a href="Proletariat" title="Proletariat">Proletariat</a></li>

<li><a href="Working_poor" title="Working poor">Working poor</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Underclass" title="Underclass">Under</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ant_tribe" title="Ant tribe">Ant tribe</a></li>

<li><a href="Outcast_(person)" title="Outcast (person)">Outcast</a></li>

<li><a href="Outlaw" title="Outlaw">Outlaw</a> / <a href="Prisoner" title="Prisoner">Prisoner</a></li>

<li><a href="Plebeians" title="Plebeians">Plebeian</a></li>

<li><a href="Rat_tribe" title="Rat tribe">Rat tribe</a></li>

<li><a href="Slavery" title="Slavery">Slave</a> / <a href="Freedman" title="Freedman">Freedman</a></li>

<li><a href="Untouchability" title="Untouchability">Untouchable</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_country_or_region321" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div title="country">By country or region</div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="United_States92" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">United States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">Affluence</a></li>

<li><a href="American_Dream" title="American Dream">American Dream</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_class_in_American_history" title="Social class in American history">History</a></li>

<li><a href="Socioeconomic_mobility_in_the_United_States" title="Socioeconomic mobility in the United States">Mobility</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Classes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="American_upper_class" title="American upper class">Upper</a>

<ul><li><a href="African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">Black</a></li>

<li><a href="Donor_Class" class="mw-redirect" title="Donor Class">Donor</a></li>

<li><a href="American_gentry" title="American gentry">Gentry</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="American_middle_class" title="American middle class">Middle</a>

<ul><li><a href="African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">Black</a></li>

<li><a href="Mexican-American_middle_class" title="Mexican-American middle class">Mexican-American</a></li>

<li><a href="Upper_middle_class_in_the_United_States" title="Upper middle class in the United States">Upper Middle</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Social_privilege" title="Social privilege">Underprivileged</a>

<ul><li><a href="American_lower_class" title="American lower class">Lower</a></li>

<li><a href="Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Under</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Income_in_the_United_States" title="Income in the United States">Income</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Household_income_in_the_United_States" title="Household income in the United States">Household</a></li>

<li><a href="Income_inequality_in_the_United_States" title="Income inequality in the United States">Inequality</a></li>

<li><a href="Personal_income_in_the_United_States" title="Personal income in the United States">Personal</a></li>

<li><a href="Poverty_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty in the United States">Poverty</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Standard_of_living_in_the_United_States" title="Standard of living in the United States">Standard of living</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Educational_attainment_in_the_United_States" title="Educational attainment in the United States">Education</a></li>

<li><a href="Homelessness_in_the_United_States" title="Homelessness in the United States">Homelessness</a></li>

<li><a href="Home-ownership_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Home-ownership in the United States">Home-ownership</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Other regions or countries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Caste_systems_in_Africa" title="Caste systems in Africa">Africa</a></li>

<li><a href="Belizean_society" title="Belizean society">Belize</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_class_in_Cambodia" title="Social class in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_structure_of_China" title="Social structure of China">China</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_class_in_Colombia" title="Social class in Colombia">Colombia</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_class_in_France" title="Social class in France">France</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_class_in_Haiti" title="Social class in Haiti">Haiti</a></li>

<li><a href="Caste_system_in_India" title="Caste system in India">India</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_class_in_Italy" title="Social class in Italy">Italy</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_class_in_Luxembourg" title="Social class in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li>

<li><a href="Caste_system_in_Nepal" title="Caste system in Nepal">Nepal</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_class_in_New_Zealand" title="Social class in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_class_in_Nigeria" title="Social class in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_structure_of_Romania" title="Social structure of Romania">Romania</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_class_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Social class in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_class_in_Tibet" title="Social class in Tibet">Tibet</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_class_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Social class in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">United States</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Historic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Social_class_in_18th-century_Spain" title="Social class in 18th-century Spain">18th-century Spain</a></li>

<li>Ancient Greece</li>

<li><a href="Social_class_in_ancient_Rome" title="Social class in ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_class_in_Aztec_society" title="Social class in Aztec society">Aztec</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_class_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Social class in the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li>

<li><a href="Four_occupations" title="Four occupations">Pre-industrial East Asia</a></li>

<li><a href="Estates_of_the_realm" title="Estates of the realm">Pre-industrial Europe</a></li>

<li><a href="Soviet_working_class" title="Soviet working class">Soviet Union</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:normal;"><div>

<ul><li> Category</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q241588#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1622" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q241588#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1622" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.worldcat.org/fast/1020437">FAST</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4039713-0">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85085013">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb126493876">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb126493876">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph126217&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datos.bne.es/resource/XX525849">Spain</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007533879005171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/013791">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/2532afe0-1c4b-4566-a1bb-f60711b27d48">Yale LUX</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-07-03" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Middle_class&oldid=1298672659">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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